From seed to harvest: Salinity priming improves pea growth and yield under rainfed conditions
Abstract
Aim of study: The aim of this research was to examine the effects of salinity-based seed priming on the growth, reproduction, and yield of pea (Pisum sativum L.) to determine its potential for enhancing drought resilience. Area of study: The field experiments were conducted over two vegetative seasons in Idvor, South Banat, Republic of Serbia. Material and methods: Pea seeds were subjected to pre-sowing salinity priming treatments using two concentrations of NaCl (40 mM and 80 mM), alongside a non-primed control group. The study assessed plant height, biomass, root growth, pod formation, and final yield. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the influence of salinity levels and seasonal variations. Main results: Moderate salinity priming (40 mM NaCl) significantly enhanced plant height, biomass, and pod formation, suggesting that mild stress-induced adaptive mechanisms can improve performance. Conversely, high salinity (80 mM NaCl) inhibited germination and root development, leading to a complete loss of yield due to ion toxicity. ANOVA revealed that salinity concentration was the dominant factor influencing all examined traits, while seasonal variations had a significantly lesser impact. Research highlights: Optimizing salinity concentrations in seed priming is crucial for balancing stress adaptation; while 40 mM NaCl improves pea growth traits, concentrations as high as 80 mM are detrimental and lead to total reproductive failure.
Downloads
References
Abinandan S, Praveen K, Venkateswarlu K, et al., 2025. Seed priming with microalgae enhances plant productivity and rhizosphere health. Soil Ecol Lett 7: 240271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42832-024-0271-1
Acharya BR, Gill SP, Kaundal A, Sandhu D, 2024. Strategies for combating plant salinity stress: the potential of plant growth-promoting microorganisms. Front Plant Sci 15: 1406913. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1406913
Ahmed M, Tóth Z, Decsi K, 2024. The impact of salinity on crop yields and the confrontational behavior of transcriptional regulators, nanoparticles, and antioxidant defensive mechanisms under stressful conditions: a review. Int J Mol Sci 25: 2654. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052654
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M, 1998. FAO irrigation and drainage paper No. 56. FAO, Rome. 56(97): e156.
Ashraf M, Athar H, Harris PJ, Kwon TR, 2008. Some perspective strategies for improving crop salt tolerance. Adv Agron 97: 45-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(07)00002-8
Bezdan A, Bezdan J, Blagojević B, Baumgertel A, Lazić I, Tošić M, Djurdjević V, 2024. Observed characteristics and projected future changes of extreme consecutive dry days events of the growing season in Serbia. Int J Climatol. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8573
Blum A, 2017. Osmotic adjustment is a prime drought stress adaptive engine in support of plant production. Plant Cell Environ 40(1): 4-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12800
Červenski, J. F., Zec, S. D., Kiprovski, B. M., Danojević, D. Đ., Tamindžić, G. M., Ignjatov, M. V., & Miljaković, D. Đ. (2024). Chemical and technological composition of spring green pea (Pisum sativum var. hortense L.) genotypes. Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Belgrade), 69(3), 271-286.
Choudhary S, Kumar V, Singhal R, Bose B, Chauhan J, Alamri S, Siddiqui M, Javed T, Shabbir R, Rajendran K, Iqbal M, Elmetwaly Z, Sorour S, Sabagh A, 2021. Seed priming with Mg(NO3)2 and ZnSO4 salts triggers the germination and growth attributes synergistically in wheat varieties. Agronomy 11(11): 2110. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11112110
Dahal P, Bradford K, Jones R, 1990. Effects of priming and endosperm integrity on seed germination rates of tomato genotypes I. Germination at suboptimal temperature. J Exp Bot 41: 1431-1439. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/41.11.1431
Ding, C., Zhang, W., Li, D., Dong, Y., Liu, J., Huang, Q., & Su, X. (2020). Effect of overexpression of JERFs on intracellular K+/Na+ balance in transgenic poplar (Populus alba× P. berolinensis) under salt stress. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 1192.
El-Sanatawy A, Ash-Shormillesy S, Qabil N, Awad M, Mansour E, 2021. Seed halo-priming improves seedling vigor, grain yield, and water use efficiency of maize under varying irrigation regimes. Water 13: 152115. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13152115
Fahad S, Bajwa A, Nazir U, Anjum S, Farooq A, Zohaib A, Sadia S, Nasim W, Adkins S, Saud S, Ihsan M, Alharby H, Wu C, Wang D, Huang J, 2017. Crop production under drought and heat stress: plant responses and management options. Front Plant Sci 8: 1147. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01147
Farooq M, Basra SMA, Wahid A, 2006. Priming of field-sown rice seed enhances germination, seedling establishment, allometry and yield. Plant Growth Regul 49: 285-294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-006-9138-y (doi.org in Bing)
Farooq M, Basra SMA, Cheema MA, 2009. Seed priming enhances germination, plant growth, and seed yield of rice. Plant Growth Regul 53(1): 215-226.
Gainullina, K., Zaikina, E., Kuluev, A., Davletov, F., & Kuluev, B. (2025). Analysis of nucleotide sequences and expression levels of the ABI3 and FUS3 genes in Pisum sativum L. genotypes differs in seed storage protein content. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 72(3), 3765-3779.
Gawłowska, M., Singh, H., Tiwari, S., Singh, J., & Kumar, P. (2024). Biofortification of pea: Improving nutrition and sustainable food systems. Harnessing crop biofortification for sustainable agriculture, 255-274.
Goufa M, Petraki A, Katsis C, Balestrazzi A, Calvio C, Kharga N, Chachalis D, Bebeli PJ, Tani E, 2025. Impact of seed priming technologies on the agronomical characteristics of Lathyrus sativus L. under normal and saline conditions. Appl Sci 15(4): 1692. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041692
Hamad RB, 2023. Seed priming with potassium chloride to alleviate salinity stress of some legume plants. Libyan J Basic Sci 20(1): 1-12. https://ljbs.omu.edu.ly/eISSN2707-6261
Harris D, Joshi A, Khan P, Gothkar P, Sodhi P, 1999. On-farm seed priming in semi-arid agriculture: development and evaluation in maize, rice and chickpea in India using participatory methods. Exp Agric 35: 15-29. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479799001027
Hmidi D, Abdelly C, Athar HU, Ashraf M, Messedi D, 2018. Effect of salinity on osmotic adjustment, proline accumulation and possible role of ornithine-δ-aminotransferase in proline biosynthesis in Cakile maritima. Physiol Mol Biol Plants 24(6): 1017-1033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-018-0601-9
Hossain MA, Fujita M, Hasan MI, 2017. Exogenous glutathione improves salinity stress tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Growth Regul 82(1): 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-017-0291-0
Hussain S, Hussain S, Khaliq A, Ali S, Khan I, 2019. Physiological, biochemical, and molecular aspects of seed priming. In: Hasanuzzaman M, Fotopoulos V (eds). Priming and Pretreatment of Seeds and Seedlings. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8625-1_3
Ibrahim EA, 2016. Seed priming to alleviate salinity stress in germinating seeds. J Plant Physiol 192: 38-46.
Kambona CM, Koua PA, Léon J, et al., 2023. Stress memory and its regulation in plants experiencing recurrent drought conditions. Theor Appl Genet 136: 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-023-04313-1
Kaziūnienė, J., Gegeckas, A., Lapinskienė, L., Razbadauskienė, K., Mažylytė, R., & Supronienė, S. (2025). Competitiveness and Nitrogen Fixation Efficiency Analysis of Rhizobium leguminosarum Strains in Different Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Genotypes. Agriculture, 15(16), 1784. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15161784
Kordrostami M, Rabiei B, 2019. Salinity stress tolerance in plants: physiological, molecular, and biotechnological approaches. In: Hasanuzzaman M, Hakeem K, Nahar K, Alharby H (eds). Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06118-0_4
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006). World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated.
Kumar R, Singh A, 2024. Legumes: physiology and molecular biology of abiotic stress tolerance. In: Prakash M, Anandan R (eds). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5817-5
Lagiotis G, Madesis P, Stavridou E, 2023. Echoes of a stressful past: abiotic stress memory in crop plants towards enhanced adaptation. Agriculture 13(11): 2090. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112090
Ma Y, Dias MC, Freitas H, 2020. Drought and salinity stress responses and microbe-induced tolerance in plants. Front Plant Sci 11: 591911. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.591911
Mahmood MZ, Odeibat HA, Ahmad R, Gatasheh MK, Shahzad M, Abbasi AM, 2024. Low apoplastic Na+ and intracellular ionic homeostasis confer salinity tolerance upon Ca2SiO4 chemigation in Zea mays L. under salt stress. Front Plant Sci 14: 1268750. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1268750
Małkowski E, Sitko K, Szopiński M, Gieroń Ż, Pogrzeba M, Kalaji HM, Zieleźnik-Rusinowska P, 2020. Hormesis in plants: the role of oxidative stress, auxins and photosynthesis in corn treated with Cd or Pb. Int J Mol Sci 21: 2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21062099
Marthandan V, Geetha R, Kumutha K, Renganathan V, Karthikeyan A, Ramalingam J, 2020. Seed priming: a feasible strategy to enhance drought tolerance in crop plants. Int J Mol Sci 21: 21828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218258
Martínez J, Ledent J, Bajji M, et al., 2003. Effect of water stress on growth, Na+ and K+ accumulation and water use efficiency in relation to osmotic adjustment in two populations of Atriplex halimus L. Plant Growth Regul 41: 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1027359613325
Mimić G, Živaljević B, Blagojević D, Pejak B, Brdar S, 2022. Quantifying the effects of drought using the crop moisture stress as an indicator of maize and sunflower yield reduction in Serbia. Atmosphere 13: 11880. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111880
Monajjem S, Soltani E, Zainali E, Esfahani M, Ghaderi-Far F, Chaleshtori M, Rezaei A, 2023. Seed priming improves enzymatic and biochemical performances of rice during seed germination under low and high temperatures. Rice Sci 30: 1016-1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2023.03.012
Munns R, Tester M, 2008. Mechanism of salinity tolerance. Annu Rev Plant Biol 59: 651-681.
Mustafa HSB, Mahmood T, Ullah A, Shah A, Bhatti AN, Naeem M, Ali R, 2017. Role of seed priming to enhance growth and development of crop plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. Bull Biol Allied Sci Res 1: 8. https://doi.org/10.54112/bbasr.v2017i1.8
Nowicki M, Nowakowska M, Nowak K, Szczechura W, Kaminski P, 2025. Seed priming and abiotic stress tolerance in carrot: unraveling the mechanisms of improved germination. PLoS ONE 20(2): e0318753. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318753
Okcu G, Kaya MD, Atak M, 2005. Effects of salt and drought stresses on germination and seedling growth of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Turk J Agric For 29(4): 237-242.
Ozturk M, Unal B, García-Caparrós P, Khursheed A, Gul A, Hasanuzzaman M, 2020. Osmoregulation and its actions during the drought stress in plants. Physiol Plantarum 170(2): 13297. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.13297
Parida AK, Das AB, 2005. Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants: a review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 60(3): 324-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.06.017
Pissolato MD, Martins TS, Fajardo YCG, et al., 2024. Stress memory in crops: what we have learned so far. Theor Exp Plant Physiol 36: 535-565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40626-024-00315-6
Seleiman M, Al-Suhaibani N, Ali N, Akmal M, Alotaibi M, Refay Y, Dindaroglu T, Abdul-Wajid H, Battaglia M, 2021. Drought stress impacts on plants and different approaches to alleviate its adverse effects. Plants 10: 20259. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020259
Schwember A, Bradford K, 2010. A genetic locus and gene expression patterns associated with the priming effect on lettuce seed germination at elevated temperatures. Plant Mol Biol 73: 105-118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-009-9591-x
StatSoft Inc., 2004. STATISTICA (Data Analysis Software System), Version 6.1. Tulsa, OK: StatSoft Inc.
Strahinja, Z., Nebojša, N., & Nataša, V. (2019). Analysis and prediction of production parameters of peas in Vojvodina. Agricultural Management/Lucrari Stiintifice Seria I, Management Agricol, 21(3).
Škorić A, Filipovski G, Ćirić M, 1985. Zemljišta Vojvodine. Novi Sad: Poljoprivredni fakultet.
Tamindžić G, Červenski J, Milošević D, Nikolić Z, Vlajić S, Jovičić D, Ignjatov M, 2023. Alleviation of salinity stress in garden pea using hydro- and osmopriming. Contemp Agric 72(3): 122-129. https://doi.org/10.2478/contagri-2023-0015
Tamindžić G, Azizbekian S, Miljaković D, Ignjatov M, Nikolić Z, Budakov D, Vasiljević S, Grahovac M, 2024. Assessment of various nanoprimings for boosting pea germination and early growth in both optimal and drought-stressed environments. Plants 13(11): 1547. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13111547
Tanou G, Fotopoulos V, Molassiotis A, 2012. Priming against environmental challenges and proteomics in plants: update and agricultural perspectives. Front Plant Sci 3: 216.
Tekin, G. K., & Bicer, B. T. (2024). The effect of different sowing dates and plant densities on plant development periods in pea under rainfed conditions in early spring. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 72.
Vuković-Vimić A, Vujadinović-Mandić M, 2024. Dynamics of change of climate conditions and extreme weather events in Serbia. Zbornik Matice srpske za prirodne nauke. https://doi.org/10.2298/zmspn2447033v
Wang W, Zhang F, Sun L, Yang L, Yang Y, Wang Y, Siddique KH, Pang J, 2022. Alkaline salt inhibits seed germination and seedling growth of canola more than neutral salt. Front Plant Sci 13: 814755. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.814755
Wang, Y., Liu, H., Wang, M., Liu, J., Geng, G., & Wang, Y. (2024). Salt tolerance in sugar beet: from impact analysis to adaptive mechanisms and future research. Plants, 13(21), 3018.
Xiao F, Zhou H, 2023. Plant salt response: perception, signaling, and tolerance. Front Plant Sci 13: 1053699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1053699
Yu L, Gao X, Zhao X, 2020. Global synthesis of the impact of droughts on crops’ water-use efficiency (WUE): towards both high WUE and productivity. Agric Syst 177: 102723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102723
Copyright (c) 2026 Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
© CSIC. Manuscripts published in both the print and online versions of this journal are the property of the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, and quoting this source is a requirement for any partial or full reproduction.
All contents of this electronic edition, except where otherwise noted, are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence. You may read the basic information and the legal text of the licence. The indication of the CC BY 4.0 licence must be expressly stated in this way when necessary.
Self-archiving in repositories, personal webpages or similar, of any version other than the final version of the work produced by the publisher, is not allowed.
